AccountingQA Latest Questions

Astha
AsthaLeader
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CreditDebitOpening Balance
  2. Simerpreet Helpful CMA Inter qualified
    This answer was edited.

    Let us begin with a short explanation of what opening balance is: The opening balance is the amount of funds that are bought forward from the end of one accounting period to the beginning of a new accounting period. In a firm’s account, the first entry done is of the opening balance. It can either hRead more

    Let us begin with a short explanation of what opening balance is:

    The opening balance is the amount of funds that are bought forward from the end of one accounting period to the beginning of a new accounting period.

    In a firm’s account, the first entry done is of the opening balance. It can either have a debit balance or a credit balance depending upon whether the firm has a negative or positive balance.

    Opening balance of a ledger

    Opening balance is the first entry of the ledger account at the beginning of an accounting period.

    In the case of a newly started business, there will be no closing balances and as such there will be no balances to be carried forward. In such a case, the investment and capital of the business will be entered as an opening balance for the current accounting period.

    So the first and foremost part is to identify on which side of the ledger i.e. the debit side or the credit side the opening balance is to be entered.

    For Example, A trial balance is given which represents the debit and credit balances, accordingly, I will prepare different ledger accounts to make it simpler.

    The trial balance shows the opening balance of various accounts. Now posting them in ledger accounts.

    As the Furniture is an Asset account, the opening balance will be on the debit side of the ledger account.

    As Sundry creditor is a credit account,  we put the opening balance on the credit side.

    As the Capital is a credit account,  we put the opening balance on the credit side.

    As Wages is a debit account,  we put the opening balance on the debit side.

    As the Discount received is a credit account,  we put the opening balance on the credit side.

    Exception

    Drawing Account.

    Drawing account is an exception to this topic. It is considered a contra account to the owner’s capital account because it reduces the value of the owner’s equity. Drawings, therefore, have no opening balance.

    Contra Entry.

    Contra entry involves transactions of cash and bank. Any entry which involves both the cash and bank is contra entry.

    For example, we deposit cash 5000 into the bank.

    Accounting entry for this transaction would be

    In this case, the ledger entry would be

    As the bank account has a debit balance, the opening balance would come on the debit side.

    As the cash account has a credit balance, the opening balance would come on the credit side.

    Alternatively, If we withdraw cash 5000 from the bank.

    Accounting entry would be

    In this case, the ledger entry would be

    As the Cash account has a debit balance, the opening balance would come on the debit side.

    As the Bank account has a credit balance, the opening balance would come on the credit side.

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Simerpreet
SimerpreetHelpful
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Working Capital
  2. Astha Leader Pursuing CA, BCom (Hons.)
    This answer was edited.

    Let us first understand what working capital is. Working capital means the funds available for the day-to-day operations of an enterprise. It is a measure of a company’s liquidity and short term financial health. They are cash or mere cash resources of a business concern. It also represents the exceRead more

    Let us first understand what working capital is.

    Working capital means the funds available for the day-to-day operations of an enterprise. It is a measure of a company’s liquidity and short term financial health. They are cash or mere cash resources of a business concern.

    It also represents the excess of current assets, such as cash, accounts receivable and inventories, over current liabilities, such as accounts payable and bank overdraft.

    working capital formula

    Sources of Working Capital

    Any transaction that increases the amount of working capital for a company is a source of working capital.

    Suppose, Amazon sells its goods for $1,000 when the cost is only $700. Then, the difference of $300 is the source of working capital as the increase in cash is greater than the decrease in inventory.

    Sources of working capital can be classified as follows:

    short term and long term sources of working capital

    Short Term Sources

    • Trade credit: Credit given by one business firm to the other arising from credit sales. It is a spontaneous source of finance representing credit extended by the supplier of goods and services.
    • Bills/Note payable: The purchaser gives a written promise to pay the amount of bill or invoice either on-demand or at a fixed future date to the seller or the bearer of the note.
    • Accrued expenses: It refers to the services availed by the firm, but the payment for which is yet to be done. It represents an interest-free source of finance.
    • Tax/Dividend provisions: It is a provision made out of current profits to meet the tax/dividend obligation. The time gap between provision made and payment of actual payment serves as a source of short-term finance during the intermediate period.
    • Cash Credit/Overdraft: Under this arrangement, the bank specifies a pre-determined limit for borrowings. The borrower can withdraw as required up to the specified limits.
    • Public deposit: These are unsecured deposits invited by the company from the public for a period of six months to 3 years.
    • Bills discounting: It refers to an activity wherein a discounted amount is released by the bank to the seller on purchase of the bill drawn by the borrower on their customers.
    • Short term loans: These loans are granted for a period of less than a year to fulfil a short term liquidity crunch.
    • Inter-corporate loans/deposits: Organizations having surplus funds invest with other organizations for up to six months at rates higher than that of banks.
    • Commercial paper: These are short term unsecured promissory notes sold at discount and redeemed at face value. These are issued for periods ranging from 7 to 360 days.
    • Debt factoring: It is an arrangement between the firm (the client) and a financial institution (the factor) whereby the factor collects dues of his client for a certain fee. In other words, the factor purchases its client’s trade debts at a discount.

    Long Term Sources

    • Retained profits: These are profits earned by a business in a financial year and set aside for further usage and investments.
    • Share Capital: It is the money invested by the shareholders in the company via purchase of shares floated by the company in the market.
    • Long term loans: These loans are disbursed for a period greater than 1 year to the borrower in his account in cash. Interest is charged on the full amount irrespective of the amount in use. These shareholders receive annual dividends against the money invested.
    • Debentures: These are issued by companies to obtain funds from the public in form of debt. They are not backed by any collateral but carry a fixed rate of interest to be paid by the company to the debenture holders.

    Another point I would like to add is that, although depreciation is recorded in expense and fixed assets accounts and does not affect working capital, it still needs to be accounted for when calculating working capital.

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Astha
AsthaLeader
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Capital
  2. Simerpreet Helpful CMA Inter qualified
    This answer was edited.

    As per Wiki, it is also called construction in progress. Capital work in progress is a non-current asset of an entity. It is also known as CWIP in short. CWIP is the work which is not yet completed but the amount for which has already been paid. Suppose, at the time of preparing a balance sheet, ifRead more

    As per Wiki, it is also called construction in progress. Capital work in progress is a non-current asset of an entity. It is also known as CWIP in short.

    CWIP is the work which is not yet completed but the amount for which has already been paid.

    Suppose, at the time of preparing a balance sheet, if an asset is not completed, all the costs incurred on that asset up to the balance sheet date are to be transferred to an account called capital work in progress.

    Example 1: A machinery under installation.

    There are several expenses incurred while installing machinery, expenses such as labor charges, Initial delivery and handling costs, Assembly and installation cost, etc are included in CWIP and when the asset is completed and is ready to use, all the costs are transferred to the relevant accounts.

    To make it simpler, let me show journal entries relating to this example.

    When an expense is incurred/paid:

    Journal entry for capital work in progress when an expense is incurred

    When an asset is complete and put to use:

    Journal entry for capital work in progress when asset is complete and put to use

    Example 2: A Contractor is constructing a building. The following expenditures are being incurred to date:

    i) Raw materials – 5,00,000

    ii) Payment to Architect – 3,50,000

    iii) Advance for Equipments – 1,50,000

    Following accounting entries will be passed to record the expenditure on CWIP assets:

    capital work in progress journal entries example

    The following accounting entry will be passed once assets are ready to use:

    entry to show cwip when asset is complete

    Disclosure in the Balance sheet

    CWIP account is shown separately in the balance sheet below the fixed asset.

    we cannot depreciate capital work in progress. It can only be depreciated when the asset is put to use.

    Capital work in progress shown in balance sheet

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Astha
AsthaLeader
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Contingent Assets
  2. Simerpreet Helpful CMA Inter qualified
    This answer was edited.

    To begin with, let me first give you a small explanation of what Contingent assets are A contingent asset is a potential asset or economic benefit that does not exist currently but may arise in the near future. Such an asset arises from an uncertain and unpredictable event. To make it clear with anRead more

    To begin with, let me first give you a small explanation of what Contingent assets are

    A contingent asset is a potential asset or economic benefit that does not exist currently but may arise in the near future. Such an asset arises from an uncertain and unpredictable event.

    To make it clear with an example: String Co. filed a lawsuit against a competitor company Weave Tech Co. for infringing on company ABC’s patent. Even if it is probable (but not certain) that Strings Co. will win the lawsuit, it is a contingent asset.

    As such, it will not be recorded in Strings Co. general ledger accounts until the lawsuit is settled.

    At most the Strings Co. can do is, prepare a note disclosing the fact that it has filed the lawsuit the outcome of which is uncertain.

    Disclosing Contingent Assets

    • The probability of occurrence is virtually certain or probable: It will be disclosed as an asset in the balance sheet.

    For Example, The court orders for reimbursement to Strings Co. say 1,00,000 for the damages, but it has not yet received the money. Although it is virtually certain that the company will receive the money in the near future, it will be treated as an asset and can be disclosed in the balance sheet on the assets side.

    • The probability of occurrence is probable: It will be disclosed as notes to accounts below the balance sheet.

    For Example, Strings Co. filed a lawsuit against a competitor company Weave Tech for infringing on Strings Co. patent. Even if it is probable (but not certain) that Strings Co. will win the lawsuit, it is a contingent asset.

    As such, it will not be recorded in Strings company’s general ledger until the lawsuit is settled.

    At most the Strings Co. can do is, prepare a note disclosing the fact that it has filed the lawsuit the outcome of which is uncertain. 

    • The probability of occurrence is remote or not probable:  It will not be treated as a contingent asset.

    In this case, the disclosure of it is not permitted.

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Simerpreet
SimerpreetHelpful
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Explain Business entity, money measurement concept, Going concern concept etc.

Accounting ConceptsGAAP
  2. AbhishekBatabyal Helpful Pursuing CA, BCOM (HONS)
    This answer was edited.

    Accounting Concepts Accounting concepts are the rules, assumptions and methods generally accepted by accountants in the preparation and presentation of financial statements of an entity. These concepts have been developed by the accounting profession for a long period. These concepts constitute theRead more

    Accounting Concepts

    Accounting concepts are the rules, assumptions and methods generally accepted by accountants in the preparation and presentation of financial statements of an entity. These concepts have been developed by the accounting profession for a long period.

    These concepts constitute the foundation of accounting and one has to be aware of them to maintain correct and uniform financial statements.

    I have listed and briefly explained the following accounting concepts.

    1. Entity Concept 
    2. Money Measurement concept 
    3. Going on concern 
    4. Periodicity concept 
    5. Accrual concept 
    6. Cost concept 
    7. Realisation concept 
    8. Matching concept 
    9. Dual aspect concept 
    10. Conservatism concept 
    11. Materiality concept 
    12. Consistency concept

     

    #1 Entity Concept 

    As per this concept, the business and its owner are separate entities from the point of view of accounting. It means the assets and liabilities of the business and owner are not the same. 

    However, in the eyes of law, the business and its owner may be a single entity.

     

    #2 Money measurement concept

    This concept states that the transaction which can be measured in terms of money shall only be recorded in the books of accounts.

    Any transaction which cannot be measured in terms of money shall not be recorded.

    #3 Going concern concept 

    Going concern concept is also a fundamental accounting assumption. It assumes that an enterprise will continue to be in business for the foreseeable future.

    It means its accounts will also be prepared to take such assumptions that the business will continue in future.

     

    #4 Periodicity concept 

    The periodicity concept states an entity needs to carry out accounting for a definite period, generally for a year known as the accounting period. The period can also be half-year or a quarter.

    The cycle of accounting restarts at the start of every accounting period.

     

    #5 Accrual concept 

    The word accrual comes from the word

    As per the accrual concept, the expense and incomes are recorded in the books of accounts in the period in which they are expected to incur whether payment in cash is made or cash is received or not.

    For example, the salary to be paid by a business is to be recorded as an expense in the year in which it is expected or liable to be paid.

     

    #6 Cost concept 

    It is concerned with the purchase of the assets of a business. As per the cost concept, a business shall record any asset in its books at the acquisition cost or purchase cost.

     

    #7 Realisation concept 

    This concept is concerned with the sale of assets. A business shall record the sale of the assets in its books only at the realised cost.

     

    #8 Matching concept 

    As per this concept, revenue earned during a period should be matched with the expenses incurred in that period. In short, an entity needs to record the income and the expenses of the same period.

     

    #9  Dual concept 

    This concept is the foundation of double-entry accounting. Dual concepts state that every transaction has two effects, debit and credit. 

    One or more accounts may be debited and other one or more accounts are credited so that the total amount of debit and credit equals.

     

    #10 Conservatism concept 

    The conservatism concept states that an entity has to account for expected losses and expenses but not for future expected profits and gains.

     

    #11 Materiality concept 

    As per this concept, only those items which are material should be shown in the financial statements of an entity. It says that items which are immaterial or insignificant in terms of value or importance to stakeholders can be ignored.

     

    #12 Consistency concept 

    It says that an entity should follow consistent accounting policies every accounting period so that a comparison can be made among the financial statements of different accounting periods.

     

    GAAP 

    Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or GAAP is a combination of authoritative standards which are set by policy boards and commonly accepted methods of recording and presenting accounting information. 

    GAAP or US GAAP is formulated by the Financial Accounting Standards Board or FASB  and almost state in the USA is compliant with GAAP. 

    The main goal of the GAAP is to ensure that the financial statements of an entity are complete, consistent and comparable.

    It can be said accounting concepts are part of GAAP.

     

    Ten key principles of GAAP

    #1 Principle of regularity

    It states that an accountant has to comply with GAAP regulations as a standard.

     

    #2 Principle of Consistency

    Accountants should be committed to applying the same set of standards throughout the accounting and reporting process, from one period to another. This is to be done to ensure comparability of financial statements between periods.  

    Also, the accountants have to fully disclose and explain the reason behind any changed or updated standards in the note of accounts of financial statements.

     

    #3 Principle of sincerity

    It states that the accountant should strive to provide an accurate and unbiased view of the financial situation of a company.

     

    #4 Principle of Permanence of Methods

    As per this principle, a company should be consistent in procedures used in financial statements so that it allows the comparison of the company’s financial information.

     

    #5 Principle of Non-Compensation

    Both negative and positive should be reported with full transparency. There should be no debt compensation i.e. debt should not be set off against any asset or expenses against revenue.

    #6 Principle of Prudence

    It states that financial data presentation should be fact-based. This principle is similar to the conservatism concept.

     

    #7 Principle of Continuity

    This is as same the going concern concept. It states that while valuing assets, it should assume that the business will continue for the foreseeable future.

     

    #8 Principle of Periodicity

    It is the same as the matching concept. It states that the revenue and expenses should be recorded in the period in which they occur.

     

    #9 Principle of Materiality

    Accountants should disclose all the financial information that is significant in the decision-making of the users of financial statements.

     

    #10 Principle of Utmost Good Faith

    It states that all parties to a transaction should act honestly and not mislead or hide crucial information from one another.

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