AccountingQA Latest Questions

Jayesh Gupta
Jayesh GuptaCurious
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  2. Ayushi Curious Pursuing CA
    This answer was edited.

    Shareholders are the entities that hold some amount or number of shares of a company. As we know that ownership of a company is divided into its shares, a shareholder is actually a part-owner of a company. By entity, it means a shareholder may be: An individual Any other company Any other incorporatRead more

    Shareholders are the entities that hold some amount or number of shares of a company. As we know that ownership of a company is divided into its shares, a shareholder is actually a part-owner of a company.

    By entity, it means a shareholder may be:

    • An individual
    • Any other company
    • Any other incorporated entity
    • Cooperative society
    • BOI( Body of Individuals)
    • AOP(Association of Persons)
    • Artificial Juridical Person

    The rights of shareholders depend on the type of shareholder one is.

    Types of shareholders

    1.   Equity Shareholders: By the term ‘shareholders’ we usually mean equity shareholders. They are permanent in nature i.e. they are not repaid the money they have invested into the company until the company is liquidated or wound up. Equity shareholders have the following rights:

    • Right to have a share in profits made by the company. The profit made by a company, when distributed to its equity shareholders is known as a dividend.
    • Right to vote on all resolutions to be passed in the Annual General Meeting of a company.
    • Right to get repaid in event of winding up of the company. However, they are paid after meeting the obligations of outsiders and of preference shareholders.
    • Right to transfer ownership of the shares. A shareholder may sell its shares to some willing buyer and cease to be a shareholder of a company.

     

    2. Preference Shareholders: They are shareholders who are given preference regarding:

    • Dividend
    • Repayment at time of winding up

    Unlike equity shareholders, they are not of permanent nature. Preference shares are redeemable i.e. they are to be repaid after a period which cannot be more than 20 years from the date of allotment of such shares (as the Companies Act, 2013). Also, a company cannot issue irredeemable preference shares. The rights of preference shareholders are as follows:-

    • By preference as to dividend, it means preference shareholders have the right to receive a fixed dividend as a certain percentage on the nominal value of the share and that too before equity shareholders are paid.
    • Right to get repaid at the date of redemption.
    • If the company get liquidated before redemption of the preference shareholder, then they have the right to get repaid before equity shareholders.

     

    3.  Differential Voting Rights Shareholders: These shareholders hold equity shares but with differential, right as to voting i.e. they may either have less voting rights or more voting right as compared to ordinary equity shares. Generally, DVR shares carry less voting power.

    For example, a DVR shareholder gets 1 vote for 10 shares whereas an ordinary equity shareholder gets 10 votes for 10 shares i.e. one vote for every share. DVR shares issued to raise not only permanent capital but also prevent dilution of voting rights.

    The rest of the right remains the same as the equity shareholders.

     

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Jayesh Gupta
Jayesh GuptaCurious
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  2. Pooja_Parikh Aspiring Chartered Accountant
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    A cash flow statement presents the changes in the cash and cash equivalents of a business. It classifies the cash flow items into either operating, investing, or financing activities. Unlike a balance sheet that provides information about the company on a particular date, a cash flow statement proviRead more

    A cash flow statement presents the changes in the cash and cash equivalents of a business. It classifies the cash flow items into either operating, investing, or financing activities. Unlike a balance sheet that provides information about the company on a particular date, a cash flow statement provides information about the flow of cash over a period of time.

    OBJECTIVE

    Information obtained through cash flow statements is aimed to assess the ability of a business to generate cash and at the same time, maintain liquidity. Therefore, important economic decisions can be made by evaluating these cash flow statements.

    Cash Flow statements are categorized into

    • Operating Activities: These activities refer to the main activities of the business during an accounting period. They involve revenue-generating activities. As per the indirect method, profit before tax is taken as the starting point and all non-cash expenses are added while non-cash incomes are deducted. Whereas in direct method, cash receipts and cash expenses are added and subtracted respectively. Eg: sale of goods.
    • Investing Activities: These activities involve the sale and purchase of non-current assets and investments. Eg: cash payment for machinery.
    • Financing Activities: These activities result in a change in capital or borrowings. Eg: cash proceeds from the issue of equity shares.

    Importance of Cash Flow

    A cash flow statement gives us knowledge about the liquidity and solvency of the company. These are necessary for the survival and expansion of the company. It also helps in predicting future cash flows by using information from previous cash flows. It also helps in comparison between companies which shows the actual cash profits.

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A_Team
A_Team
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  2. Bonnie Curious MBA (Finance)
    This answer was edited.

    As per the Golden Rules As per the golden rules of accounting, a trading account is a nominal account. To ensure that financial statements accurately reflect a business's financial position and performance, the golden rules of accounting guide the preparation of financial statements. The point to noRead more

    As per the Golden Rules

    As per the golden rules of accounting, a trading account is a nominal account. To ensure that financial statements accurately reflect a business’s financial position and performance, the golden rules of accounting guide the preparation of financial statements.

    The point to note is that it is almost impossible to apply the rules of debit and credit with certain accounts such as Trading A/c, Profit & Loss A/c, etc.

     

    As per the Modern Rules

    The purpose of a trading account is to record transactions related to the purchase and sale of goods for a business. In other words, it serves as a recording and reporting mechanism for business income and expenses.

    An accounting period, like a month, quarter, or year, is the time when a trading account is prepared. It is used to calculate the business’s net profit or loss. Other financial statements, such as the balance sheet, are prepared using the information in a trading account.

    In summary, a trading account is a type of income statement account that is used to track and report on the income and expenses from a business’s buying and selling activities

     

    Rules of Debit and Credit

    There are three main types of accounts according to the legacy rules of debit and credit: personal accounts, real accounts, and nominal accounts. A personal account is one that is related to an individual or entity owing the business money (e.g. a customer), or owing the business money (e.g. a supplier).

    A real account is one that relates to assets such as cash, inventory, and property.

    Nominal accounts are accounts that relate to income and expenses, such as a “trading account”.

    To summarize, a trading account is a nominal account used to record and report the business’s income and expenses resulting from its buying and selling activities.

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Anushka Lalwani
Anushka Lalwani
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  2. Akash Kumar AK
    This answer was edited.

    Expenses are of two types, are Direct Expenses Indirect Expenses   Direct Expenses Direct expenses are those expenses are which are directly related to the manufacturing or production of the final goods. These expenses are also known as Manufacturing expenses. Manufacturing or production of gooRead more

    Expenses are of two types, are

    1. Direct Expenses
    2. Indirect Expenses

     

    Direct Expenses

    Direct expenses are those expenses are which are directly related to the manufacturing or production of the final goods. These expenses are also known as Manufacturing expenses.

    Manufacturing or production of goods indicates the conversion of Raw material into finished goods. the expenses incurred in the stage of conversion are treated as Direct expenses or Manufacturing expenses.

    Direct expenses are shown on the Debit side of the Trading Account.

     

    Indirect Expenses

    Indirect expenses are those expenses that are incurred to run a business day-to-day and maintenance of the company.  In other words, they are not directly related to making a product or service or buying a wholesale product to resell.

    Indirect expenses are classified into three types, which are

    1. Factory Expenses
    2. Administrative Expenses
    3. Selling & Distribution Expenses

    Indirect Expenses are shown on the Debit side of the Profit and Loss Account.

     

    Presentation of Direct Expenses in Trading Account

     

    Examples of Direct Expenses

    1. Gas, water, and Fuel: Gas, water, and fuel are the essentials to run a factory and are used in machinery to manufacture its final goods.
    2. Wages: Wages are the daily payments to the workers or Labours working in the factory premises on a daily or weekly payment basis.
    3. Freight and Carriage: Freight and Carriage are the expenses related to the importing of raw materials from the godown or from the outsiders to the Factory.
    4. Factory Rent: Rent paid for the factory area or any payment related to the place of the factory is known as factory rent.
    5. Factory Lighting: The expenses related to the uniform distribution of light over the working plane are obtained in the factory premises.
    6. Factory Insurance: The payment of insurance related to the factory will come under direct expenses.
    7. Manufacturing Expenses: Any other expenses related to the manufacturing process of finished goods are manufacturing expenses.
    8. Cargo Expenses: These are the expenses related to goods or freight being shipped or carried by the ocean, air, or land from one place to another.
    9. Upkeep and Maintenance: These are the expenses related to the maintenance of the factory for smooth running.
    10. Repairs on Machinery: The expenses related to any repair on machinery which is used in the production.
    11. Coal, Oil, and Grease: Coal, oil, and grease are the essentials to run machinery which results in the conversion of raw material to finished goods.
    12. Custom Charges: The expenses related to the payment of any Customs duty for the material imported.
    13. Clearing Charges: A clearing charge is a charge assessed on securities transactions by a clearing house for completing transactions using its own facilities.
    14. Depreciation on Machinery: Generally it is a nonmonetary expense but recorded in the trading account as a direct expense as per the accrual accounting.
    15. Import duty: any payment related to the importing of any machinery or any material from other countries is known as import duty.
    16. Octroi: this is the tax levied by a local political unit, normally the commune or municipal authority, on certain categories of goods as they enter the area.
    17. Shipping expenses: any expense related to the shipment charges of the raw material is known as shipping expenses.
    18. Motive power: Motive Power basically means any power, such as electricity or steam energy, etc, used to impart motion to any source of mechanical energy.
    19. Dock dues: a payment that a shipping company must pay for the use of a port.
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Aadil
AadilCurious
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  2. Vijay Curious M.Com
    This answer was edited.

    As you know all transactions occurring in a business are recorded in the journal (book of original entry) in chronological order. After recording them in the journal, they are posted to their respective ledger accounts. Here I've explained the steps involved in posting a journal entry to the ledger.Read more

    As you know all transactions occurring in a business are recorded in the journal (book of original entry) in chronological order. After recording them in the journal, they are posted to their respective ledger accounts.

    Here I’ve explained the steps involved in posting a journal entry to the ledger.

    Posting of an account debited in the journal entry:

    Step 1: Identify the account which has to be debited in the ledger.

    Step 2: Write the date of the transaction under the ‘Date Column’ of the debit side of the ledger account.

    Step 3: Write the name of the account which has been credited in the journal entry in the ‘Particulars Column’ on the debit side of the account as “To (name of the account)”.

    Step 4: Write the page number of the journal where the entry exists in the ‘Journal Folio (JF) Column’.

    Step 5: Enter the amount in the ‘Amount Column’ on the debit side of the ledger account.

    Posting of an account credited in the journal entry:

    Step 1: Identify the account which has to be credited in the ledger.

    Step 2: Write the date of the transaction under the ‘Date Column’ of the credit side of the ledger account.

    Step 3: Write the name of the account which has been debited in the journal entry in the ‘Particulars Column’ on the credit side of the account as “By (name of the account)”.

    Step 4: Write the page number of the journal where the entry exists in the ‘Journal Folio (JF) Column’.

    Step 5: Enter the amount in the ‘Amount Column’ on the credit side of the ledger account.

    I’ll explain the process of preparing a ledger A/c with a simple transaction.

    On 1st May ABC Ltd. purchased machinery for 5,00,000. In the Journal the following entry will be made.

    Machinery A/c   5,00,000
       To Bank A/c   5,00,000
    (Being machinery purchased for 5,00,000)

    Let’s assume that this entry appears on page no. 32 of the journal. Now we will open Machinery A/c and Bank A/c in the Ledger.

    On the debit side of the Machinery A/c “To Bank A/c” will be written. In the Bank A/c “By Machinery A/c” will be written on the credit side.

    An extract of both the accounts are as follows:

    Machinery A/c

    Date Particulars J.F. Amt. Date Particulars J.F. Amt.
    May-01 To Bank A/c 32   5,00,000

     

    Bank A/c

    Date Particulars J.F. Amt. Date Particulars J.F. Amt.
    May-01 By Machinery A/c 32   5,00,000
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Bonnie
BonnieCurious
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  2. Ayushi Curious Pursuing CA
    This answer was edited.

    No, capital account is not a real account. Capital account represents the amount of money invested by the owner/owners of the business along with the retained earnings net of drawings or dividends. Capital account has a natural credit balance because it is an internal liability of the business. CapiRead more

    No, capital account is not a real account.

    Capital account represents the amount of money invested by the owner/owners of the business along with the retained earnings net of drawings or dividends. Capital account has a natural credit balance because it is an internal liability of the business.

    Capital account is a personal account because, as discussed above, it represents the investment of the owner or owners. Personal account represents person or persons.

    Whereas a real account represents the material assets of a business. Example:-  Cash A/c, Fixed assets A/c etc. That’s why the capital account is not a real account.

    Being a personal account, the following golden rule of accounting applies to capital account:-

    “Debit the receiver and credit the giver”

    Here, as the owner gives an amount as an investment into the business (owner and the business are separate entities), the capital account has a credit balance.

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SidharthBadlani
SidharthBadlani
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  2. Ishika Pandey Curious ca aspirant
    This answer was edited.

    Definition Posting refers to moving the transaction entries from the journal to the ledger books of the company. It is an important part of the accounting cycle. Posting helps us to classify transactions in a better manner. A journal is used to record transactions in chronological order while ledgerRead more

    Definition

    Posting refers to moving the transaction entries from the journal to the ledger books of the company. It is an important part of the accounting cycle.

    Posting helps us to classify transactions in a better manner.

    A journal is used to record transactions in chronological order while ledger books are used to classify transactions into assets, liabilities, expenses, and incomes.

    Steps of Posting

    • Create and name ledger accounts for different items of trial balance

    • Identify those entries in the journal that relate to the relevant ledger book under consideration.

    • Post the entry on the debit or credit side of the ledger account.

    • For example, when salaries are paid a salary account is debited and a bank account is credited. When posting this transaction in the bank account we will debit the bank account and write “To salaries” under the head “particular”. This will indicate that salaries were paid from a bank account causing a reduction in the bank balance.

    • After all the journal entries relevant to a particular ledger account have been posted in it, we will tally the total of the debit and the credit side of the ledger account to ascertain any balance left.

    • Usually, asset accounts have the debit side exceeding the credit side. That is to say, they have a debit balance. Liability accounts usually have a credit balance.

    • It is not necessary that every ledger account may have a balance left at the end. The total of the amounts on the debit side may be equal to the total of the amounts on the credit side in some ledger accounts.

    • The last step is to recheck the ledger account to identify and correct any mistakes that may have occurred during the posting process.

    Importance of Posting

    • Posting helps us to classify transactions in a better and more efficient manner.

    • Posting makes the books of accounts more readable.

    • An accountant may choose to engage in posting once every month or even once every day as per the requirements of the business and the financial reporting norms.

    • Posting is necessary for the creation of financial statements. A trial balance cannot be drafted without determining the balance of each ledger account.

    • Posting helps us to know the balance of each account This helps to run the business smoothly by tracking balances timely and making up for any likely deficiency in advance.

    • Analysis of how balances of various ledger accounts have changed over time helps us to draw valuable conclusions for the business.

    Conclusion

    We can conclude by saying that the process of posting refers to transferring the entries from the journal to the ledger accounts.

    Posting is an essential step of the accounting cycle and without it, financial statements cannot be prepared. Any error while posting is bound to adversely affect the creation of the financial statements.

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A_Team
A_Team
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  2. PriyanshiGupta Graduated, B.Com
    This answer was edited.

    Workmen Compensation Reserve as the name suggests is a reserve created by the company to compensate its employees in the event of any uncertainty in future. It is created to protect the interest of workers in the company. Workmen Compensation Reserve Account is generally given effect in case of admiRead more

    Workmen Compensation Reserve as the name suggests is a reserve created by the company to compensate its employees in the event of any uncertainty in future. It is created to protect the interest of workers in the company.

    Workmen Compensation Reserve Account is generally given effect in case of admission, retirement of partners or dissolution of firm.

    If there is a change in the estimated value of reserve it is given effect during the revaluation of assets and liabilities.

    Journal entry if the existing reserve is less than the new estimated amount:

    Revaluation A/c (Dr)

    To Workmen Compensation Reserve A/c

    The reserve is credited because we need to create more than the existing reserve, since the new estimated liability is more than the existing.

    Journal entry if the existing reserve is more than the new estimated amount:

    Workmen Compensation Reserve A/c (Dr)

    To Revaluation A/c

    The reserve is debited because we need to decrease the existing reserve, since the new estimated liability is less than the existing.

    If a worker claims compensation, it is said to be a liability against the reserve. In case of dissolution, any such liability against workmen compensation reserve takes priority to be paid off according to the law.

    Journal entry in case of claim against reserve is:

    Workmen Compensation Reserve A/c (Dr)

    To Workmen Compensation Claim

    The amount is transferred from the reserve to a new liability, hence the reserve is debited and the claim is credited.

    If there are not sufficient funds in the firm to pay the liability, partners will have to bring funds from their personal assets to pay the workers.

    Journal entry when partner’s have to bring funds:

    Partner’s Capital Account (Dr)

    To Workmen Compensation Reserve A/c

    Partner’s need to bring funds to fulfill the liability, hence there account is debited and since the reserve is increased, hence it is credited.

    If there is no liability against the Workmen Compensation Reserve then it is distributed amongst the partners in their existing profit-sharing ratio.

    Journal entry for distribution of reserve is:

    Workmen Compensation Reserve A/c (Dr)

    To Partner’s Capital Account

    Since, reserve is more than required it is distributed among partners, hence their account is credited and as the reserve decreases, it is debited.

     

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SidharthBadlani
SidharthBadlani
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  2. Ishika Pandey Curious ca aspirant
    This answer was edited.

    Definition Contingent Asset is an asset the existence, ownership, or value of which may be known or determined only on the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events. However, the difference between Contingent assets is not disclosed whereas Contingent liabilities are discloRead more

    Definition

    Contingent Asset is an asset the existence, ownership, or value of which may be known or determined only on the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events.

    However, the difference between Contingent assets is not disclosed whereas Contingent liabilities are disclosed by way of notes they do have different criteria for recognition which are discussed below.

    For example:– a claim that an enterprise is pursuing through the legal process, where the outcome is uncertain, is a contingent asset.

    Contingent liabilities are defined as obligations relating to existing conditions or situations which may arise in the future depending on the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain events.

    For example:- Billis discounted but not yet matured, arrears of dividend on cum –preferences-shares, etc.

    Meaning as per AS – 29

    Now let me try to explain to you the meaning according to Accounting Standard 29 of the above contingent assets and liabilities which is as follows:-

    • Contingent asset

    A contingent asset is a possible asset that arises from past events the existence of which will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events.
    Not wholly within the control of the enterprise.

    It usually arises from unplanned or unexpected events that give rise to the possibility of an inflow of economic benefits to the enterprise.

    • Contingent liability

    A possible obligation that arises from past events the existence of which will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future events.
    Not wholly within the control of the enterprise.

    A present obligation that arises from past events but is not recognized because it is not probable that the outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation or,
    A reliable estimate of the amount of obligation cannot be made.

    Recognition In Financial Statements

    Contingent assets and liabilities are recognized as follows:-

    • Contingent Assets

    As per the prudence concept s well as present accounting standards, an enterprise should not recognize a contingent asset.

    It is possible that the recognition of contingent assets may result in the recognition of income that may never be realized.

    However, when the realization of income is virtually certain, the related asset no longer remains contingent.

    • Contingent liability

    As per the rules, it is not recognized by an enterprise.

    When recognized?

    Contingent assets are assessed continually and if it has become virtuality an outflow of economic benefits will arise.

    The assets and the related income are recognized in the financial statements of the period in which the change occurs.

    Contingent liability is assessed continually to determine whether an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits has become probable.

    And if it becomes probable that an outflow or future economic benefits will require for an item previously dealt with as a contingent liability.

    A provision is recognized in financial statements of the period in which the change probability occurs except in extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made.

    Disclosure

    Now we will see how contingent assets and liability are disclosed which is mentioned below:-

    • Contingent asset

    These contingent assets are not disclosed in financial statements.
    A contingent asset is usually disclosed in the report of the approving authority ( ie.e., Board Of Directors in the case of a company, and the corresponding approving authority in case of any enterprise), if ab inflow of economic benefits is probable.

    • Contingent Assets

    A contingent liability is required to be disclosed by way of a note to the balance sheet unless the possibility of an outflow of a resource embodying economic benefit is remote.

     

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